Learn what cytology is. Understand the early history of cytology and discover how the field has developed over the years with the usage of cytology tests.
Updated: 02/21/2022
Cytology Early History and Modern Use
What is Cytology?
Cytology is the examination of cells found in tissues or bodily fluids in order to diagnose diseases or illnesses. Physicians will use this study to screen for cancer, check for abnormalities in a fetus, analyze pap smears, and diagnose infectious organisms. Cancer is defined as abnormal cell growth; being able to study cells in cytology will support analysis of potentially cancerous cells. This study is different from histology- the study of tissues. This is different because it examines individual cells.
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Cytology's Early History
The original scientist that studied cells was Robert Hooke. In 1665, Hooke tested microscopes and perfected the ability to see microscopic structures that no one had seen before. He coined the term "cell" after discovering them in a piece of cork he was examining. He named them this because the shape looked like cells Monks lived in.
The next scientist with an influence on our knowledge of cells is Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Leeuwenhoek is known as the father of microbiology. He invented the microscope which allowed Hooke to be able to see microscopic organisms and discover the cell. Leeuwenhoek is also famous for discovering bacteria, sperm cells, yeasts, and mold. All of these different discoveries are critical to cytology as they are key to diagnoses.
Matthias Schleiden along with Theodor Schwann are known as the originators of the cell theory. After analyzing numerous plants under the microscope, they deduced that all plants are made of cells. Afterward, they analyzed different organisms in the animal kingdom and found that all animals were composed of cells. These discoveries are how we know today that all living organisms are made of cells. It is necessary to understand this to know that in cytology, everything that can be studied is a living organism.
Modern Cytology
Jumping into the 20th century, Ernst Ruska, a German engineer, was the inventor of the electron microscope. Because of this invention, we are able to see microscopic organisms with greater detail and observe things smaller than ever before. This microscope can identify viruses, molecules, and atoms. This invention was a huge development for the field of cytology and being able to identify pathogens that harm patients.
Henrietta Lacks was a woman with cervical cancer who died in 1951. Her cervical cancer cells were critical to cancer research in the field of cytology. For years, Dr. George O. Gey analyzed cells that were found in cervical cancer tumors. Before Henrietta, all the cells died immediately and were of no use to his experiments. However, her cells were special- they were doubling every 20-24 hours. This proved useful to Dr. Gey; he named these cells HeLa cells. Due to their ability to proliferate, these cells helped scientists test the effects of radiation, poisons, viruses, and vaccines on human cells. Because of these cells, the polio vaccine was created. Henrietta Lacks' cells were a vital part of the field of cytology and being able to understand cell growth and the different effects pathogens have on cells.
What Is Cytology?
To define cytology, we can break down the word into two parts. The suffix -logy, or -ology means the 'study of.' To find out what we're studying, we look to the prefix cyto, which means 'cell' and is derived from the Greek word kytos, meaning 'hollow vessel' or 'container.' Put these two together, and we have our definition: cytology is the study of cells. More specifically, cytology is a branch of science that studies how cells work and grow and what they're made of.
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Cytology Tests
Cytology tests are done for either diagnostic or screening purposes. If the patient is brought in for a diagnostic cytology test, the doctor is looking at their cells. This is to see if they currently have the disease or pathogen in question. If the patient is having a screening cytology test, the doctor is looking at their cells. This is to see if there is potential for the patient to have this disease in the future. A common screening exam that is performed is a Pap test done at yearly gynecology appointments.
There are three common methods for cytology tests: fine needle aspiration, body fluid analysis, and scrape or brush cytology. Fine needle aspiration occurs when a tiny needle is inserted into an abnormal tissue to collect cells. Body fluid analysis occurs when the cells are extracted from body fluids such as urine, phlegm, spinal fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid, or ascitic fluid. Scrape or brush cytology takes place when a small brush or spatula is used to brush or scrape off cells from an area in question. This is typically done to the cervix during a Pap test. Additionally, this procedure can also happen in the esophagus, stomach, bronchi, and mouth.
Cytology screening can be either exfoliative or interventional. Exfoliative cytology is when the body either naturally sheds its cells or the physician scrapes the cells off a tissue. This type of cytology would include body fluid analysis and scrape or brush cytology. Intervention cytology would be a type of cytology where the physician must insert a needle to collect the cells necessary. Fine needle aspiration is an example of interventional cytology.
No matter which type of test is used, the cells gathered will show the physician whether or not the cells are cancerous or have the infectious disease.
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Lesson Summary
Cytology, or the study of cells, is an invaluable field of study for diagnosing cancer and other pathogenic diseases. During cytology, the doctor is analyzing individual cells to identify the issue the patient is having. This is done to understand if there is a potential for an issue in the future. Scientists such as Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, and Schwann were the fathers of early cell research that helped make cytology possible. Leeuwenhoek created the microscope that Hooke used to discover and name the first cells. Schleiden and Schwann were the first scientists to discover that all living things are made of cells. With the early history of the cell, scientists of today were able to analyze diseases further. Because of Ruska, the electron microscope was invented and microorganisms have been studied. This helped understand the seemingly invisible reasons for diseases caused by bacteria and fungi. Because of Gey and his studies on Henrietta Lacks' HeLa cells, physicians were able to understand cancer better and could create vaccines to help prevent pathogenic illnesses.
Cytology tests are either done to diagnose an issue or to screen for future problems. These tests are done through one of two methods: exfoliation or interventional cytology. In exfoliative cytology, the physician scrapes cells from the tissue. The two types of exfoliative cytology are body fluid analysis and scrape or brush cytology. The goal of body fluid cytology is to analyze the cells in a fluid located in the area of the problem. Scrape or brush cytology is when the doctor scrapes or brushes the cells off the tissue. A common example of this type of cytology is a pap smear. Intervention cytology is when the physician has to use a needle to extract the cells out of the problematic area. This type of cytology test is called fine needle aspiration cytology. Once all of these cells are extracted, they will be grown on cell media. This is a type of food for cells that allows the cells to grow for better analysis.
Early History
The history of cell science is closely linked with the invention and advancement of the microscope. Robert Hooke was the first scientist to use the word 'cell' in 1665 when he looked at slices of cork through a lit compound microscope (a microscope with two or more lenses) and observed very small, irregular boxes that reminded him of tiny rooms, or cells. Hooke wrote about his findings and drew the structures he saw in his book Micrographia, which was published in 1665.
We now know that the small 'cells' Hooke observed were actually the walls of plant cells that had died. Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a more powerful magnifying microscope to look more closely at specimens found in human body fluids in 1683. He noticed tiny specimens that were capable of movement and, therefore, alive. Van Leeuwenhoek named these little moving objects animalcules. With his more advanced microscope, Van Leewenhoek was even able to observe structures within cells, including the nucleus of a red blood cell.
The importance of cells to all forms of life was not fully recognized until the development of cell theory. The earliest (classical) cell theory was developed in the 1838 by plant scientist Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist Theodor Schwann. They each came to the same conclusion that the living things they studied were composed of cells. The classical cell theory summarized the ideas of the previously mentioned scientists into the following points:
- All organisms are made up of one or more cells
- Cells are the fundamental functional and structural units of life
In 1858, Rudolf Virchow added to the classical cell theory with the idea that:
- Cells only come from other cells
Modern Cytology
The late 19th century showed further advancement in cell biology, with more and more scientists coming up with ways to grow, study, and manipulate tissues and cells outside of a living body in a lab. Early 'cell food' mixtures included water, salt, sugar, and chemicals to control the levels of acid in the solution. Synthetic cell food, called cell media, was improved by adding amino acids and vitamins to the solutions.
New ways to look at cells under the microscope were made possible by the staining of cells. Special dyes were added to cells to make them easier to observe as far back as 1891. Now, there are many kinds of cellular staining, from simple dyes that absorb into different parts of the cell to chemicals that can make cells literally light up under the microscope.
Another breakthrough came in 1931, when Ernst Ruska developed the first electron microscope. The electron microscope worked by shooting beams of electrons through a very thin slice of specimen, which would bounce off and create a picture of the specimen on special film that would generate a highly detailed and magnified image. Certain types of electron microscopes are now capable of magnifying things by up to two million times their original size!
In the mid-20th century, George O. Gey was able to grow cancer cells taken from a woman named Henrietta Lacks. These cancer cells, now known as the HeLa cell line, were the first human cancer cells to be continuously grown in a lab. This was an astounding breakthrough in cell biology, providing a continuous line of cancer cells for scientists to do experiments and research on. The HeLa strain was used in research for the polio vaccine and also were the first human cells to be successfully cloned in 1955. Now, the HeLa cells are used around the world for continuing research on cancer, genetic studies, and more.
Cytology is important in modern-day medicine as well. Cytological tests are used to observe human cells to determine the risk of abnormalities and cancer. The Pap smear test looks at cells as opposed to pieces of tissue and is used to screen women for cervical cancer. Other types of cytological tests include examining urine for detecting diseases/cancer in the urinary tract and collecting fluid from the pleural space (the area that surrounds your lungs) to detect cancer cells in the lungs.
Lesson Summary
So, what have we learned? Cytology is a branch of science that allows scientists to 'zoom in' on the human body at a cellular level. We learned that the advancement of cytology was made possible by the improvement of the microscope as well as the progress made in culturing cells in the lab for experimentation and observation.
Today, cytology can be used to discover if there are too many of one kind of cell, or if a cell is growing and multiplying too fast, which may cause cancer in the body. Cytology can also test for cells that are harmful to the body, such as bacteria and parasites. Cytology allows us to observe and understand the smallest parts of our world.
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Video Transcript
What Is Cytology?
To define cytology, we can break down the word into two parts. The suffix -logy, or -ology means the 'study of.' To find out what we're studying, we look to the prefix cyto, which means 'cell' and is derived from the Greek word kytos, meaning 'hollow vessel' or 'container.' Put these two together, and we have our definition: cytology is the study of cells. More specifically, cytology is a branch of science that studies how cells work and grow and what they're made of.
Early History
The history of cell science is closely linked with the invention and advancement of the microscope. Robert Hooke was the first scientist to use the word 'cell' in 1665 when he looked at slices of cork through a lit compound microscope (a microscope with two or more lenses) and observed very small, irregular boxes that reminded him of tiny rooms, or cells. Hooke wrote about his findings and drew the structures he saw in his book Micrographia, which was published in 1665.
We now know that the small 'cells' Hooke observed were actually the walls of plant cells that had died. Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a more powerful magnifying microscope to look more closely at specimens found in human body fluids in 1683. He noticed tiny specimens that were capable of movement and, therefore, alive. Van Leeuwenhoek named these little moving objects animalcules. With his more advanced microscope, Van Leewenhoek was even able to observe structures within cells, including the nucleus of a red blood cell.
The importance of cells to all forms of life was not fully recognized until the development of cell theory. The earliest (classical) cell theory was developed in the 1838 by plant scientist Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist Theodor Schwann. They each came to the same conclusion that the living things they studied were composed of cells. The classical cell theory summarized the ideas of the previously mentioned scientists into the following points:
- All organisms are made up of one or more cells
- Cells are the fundamental functional and structural units of life
In 1858, Rudolf Virchow added to the classical cell theory with the idea that:
- Cells only come from other cells
Modern Cytology
The late 19th century showed further advancement in cell biology, with more and more scientists coming up with ways to grow, study, and manipulate tissues and cells outside of a living body in a lab. Early 'cell food' mixtures included water, salt, sugar, and chemicals to control the levels of acid in the solution. Synthetic cell food, called cell media, was improved by adding amino acids and vitamins to the solutions.
New ways to look at cells under the microscope were made possible by the staining of cells. Special dyes were added to cells to make them easier to observe as far back as 1891. Now, there are many kinds of cellular staining, from simple dyes that absorb into different parts of the cell to chemicals that can make cells literally light up under the microscope.
Another breakthrough came in 1931, when Ernst Ruska developed the first electron microscope. The electron microscope worked by shooting beams of electrons through a very thin slice of specimen, which would bounce off and create a picture of the specimen on special film that would generate a highly detailed and magnified image. Certain types of electron microscopes are now capable of magnifying things by up to two million times their original size!
In the mid-20th century, George O. Gey was able to grow cancer cells taken from a woman named Henrietta Lacks. These cancer cells, now known as the HeLa cell line, were the first human cancer cells to be continuously grown in a lab. This was an astounding breakthrough in cell biology, providing a continuous line of cancer cells for scientists to do experiments and research on. The HeLa strain was used in research for the polio vaccine and also were the first human cells to be successfully cloned in 1955. Now, the HeLa cells are used around the world for continuing research on cancer, genetic studies, and more.
Cytology is important in modern-day medicine as well. Cytological tests are used to observe human cells to determine the risk of abnormalities and cancer. The Pap smear test looks at cells as opposed to pieces of tissue and is used to screen women for cervical cancer. Other types of cytological tests include examining urine for detecting diseases/cancer in the urinary tract and collecting fluid from the pleural space (the area that surrounds your lungs) to detect cancer cells in the lungs.
Lesson Summary
So, what have we learned? Cytology is a branch of science that allows scientists to 'zoom in' on the human body at a cellular level. We learned that the advancement of cytology was made possible by the improvement of the microscope as well as the progress made in culturing cells in the lab for experimentation and observation.
Today, cytology can be used to discover if there are too many of one kind of cell, or if a cell is growing and multiplying too fast, which may cause cancer in the body. Cytology can also test for cells that are harmful to the body, such as bacteria and parasites. Cytology allows us to observe and understand the smallest parts of our world.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is a cytology test for?
Cytology tests are done to analyze the cells of a problematic area in the body. This test would determine if the area is cancerous or if the patient had a pathogenic illness.
What is a simple definition of cytology?
Cytology is the study of individual cells in a patient to exam for abnormalities or pathogenic illnesses. This is different from histology as that is the study of whole tissues, not individual cells.
Can cytology detect cancer?
Yes, cytology is done to test for individual cells to see if those cells are cancerous. The physician can tell from analyzing the cells if they have cancerous abnormalities.
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